Documentation

The following documents the original digital publication Layered Lives: Rhetoric and Representation in the Southern Life History Project by Taylor Arnold, Courtney Rivard, and Lauren Tilton (Stanford University Press, 2022). DOI: 10.21627/2022ll ISBN: 9781503615281.

Download video transcript.

Overview

The Southern Life History Project, a Federal Writers’ Project initiative, put unemployed writers to work during the Great Depression by capturing the stories of everyday people across the Southeast through a new form of social documentation called “life histories.”

Layered Lives recovers the history of the Southern Life History Project (SLHP) through an interdisciplinary approach that combines close readings of archival material with computational methods that analyze the collection at scale. The authors grapple with the challenges of what counts as social knowledge, how to accurately represent social conditions, who could produce such knowledge, and who is and is not represented. Embedded within such debates are also struggles over what counts as data, evidence, and ways of knowing. As we look to our current moment, where debates about the opportunities and limits of quantification and the nature of data continue, the problems and promises that shaped the SLHP still shape how we capture and share stories today.

The project was originally published August 2022 at http://layeredlives.org. It is the ninth publication of Stanford University Press’s initiative for the publication of interactive scholarly works funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Technical Requirements

At the time of publication, reading this project requires an internet connection and is best experienced via any active JavaScript-enabled browser. Current browsers at time of publication include Safari 15, Chrome 103, Firefox 102, Microsoft Edge 103, Opera 89, and other contemporary browsers. The project includes an interactive map and is best experienced on a nonmobile or desktop-sized screen.

Technical Specifications

The project was built using Node and React and presented via static HTML/CSS/JavaScript. The published version of the project is hosted in a LAMP server environment running Cloudlinux 7.8. The project runs primarily on JavaScript and does not use database software.

User Experience

The Layered Lives platform has been developed to expand forms of academic scholarship and communicate knowledge. Along with archival evidence, the creation, analysis, and communication of data sit at the core of this project. The digital platform offers an opportunity to make visible what kinds of data we created, how we analyzed the data, and why through visualizations and text. These values are shown through the structure of the project as seen in the user experience.

After clicking Enter from the cover (see fig. 1), users landing on the project page (see fig. 2) are shown a table of contents on the left-hand side of the screen and a map on the right-hand side of the screen. Clicking on elements of the table of contents changes the left-hand panel to show the written argument of the project (see fig. 3). Components are structured into what we call layers. As a chapter, each layer offers insights into the social, political, and cultural work of the Southern Life History Project. Hyperlinks within the text point to bibliographic references and cross-citations within the project.

When a user hovers over a hyperlink attached to archival resources, a pop-up window appears on the right-hand side showing an image of the archival document (see fig. 4). These were scanned directly by the project team from the SLHP archives housed at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Hyperlinks within the text also open new visualizations on the right-hand panel, which are described below.

The large interactive map on the right-hand panel defaults to show the southeastern United States. The default map shows the locations where interviews in the SLHP took place using round dots overlaid on a minimal map of the United States. The area of the point is proportional to the number of interviews in one location. Points on the map are given a translucent color so that points for nearby towns can be seen even when one town has many interviews.

Different maps are available to explore the spatial extent of the collection in different ways. These can be selected through the drop-down menu. Options include filtering by the gender and race of the writers and interviewees as well as coloring the points by the occupation of the interviewees (see fig. 5). Clicking on a point shows a list of all interviews conducted in each location (see fig. 6). Clicking on the interview brings up a new tab that shows the text of the interview as a styled XML file (see fig. 7).

The Layered Lives platform is designed to pair text and interactive visualizations to convey the project’s arguments and scope. A textual analysis of the collection can be seen by clicking on the Themes button in the corner of the map or following the textual model hyperlinks sprinkled throughout the layers (see figs. 8 and 9).

The two text analysis models used in our analysis—topic modeling and document clustering—are both built to analyze the occurrence of terms within the text of the interviews. These can be explored on the platform by selecting a model, looking at the top terms for each topic or cluster, and then investigating the individual document within each group. Clicking on an individual interview opens the XML file of the entire text in a similar way to clicking on the interview from the map. These provide different modes for users to discover for themselves the depth and variety of the life histories included in the archive.

Technical Structure

The SDR archive collection includes a single public_html.tar file, which, when uncompressed, reveals the full structure and contents of the hosted publication. Most of the textual content is contained in the file main.43b93da7.chunk.js within /static/js, while the archival files, stored as XML, can be found in /data/xml. This data is read and presented by means of custom JavaScript and styles housed in the “css” and “static” directories. Media files are located in the “img” directory in the project’s public_html folder. Base URL in this package is set to accommodate the original publication URL at layeredlives.supdigital.org.

A web archive of this project can be accessed via the Archive link on the project’s cover page at http://layeredlives.org/ or downloaded from the Stanford Digital Repository collection at https://purl.stanford.edu/jm374kc0685.

Credits

Authors: Lauren Tilton, Courtney Rivard, and Taylor Arnold

Student Workers:
Emeline Blevins Alexander, Bal Artis, Carla Aviles, Karissa Barrera, Elizabeth Bonesteel, Kayley Bryson, Ivana Devine, Grant Glass, Grace Hilebrand, Sarah Moody, Lacie Morrison, Scott Robinson, and Sara Siemens

Southern Historical Collection at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill:
Matthew Turi, Jason Tomberlin, and Matt Jenson

Works Cited/Bibliography

Abrams, Douglas Carl. Conservative Constraints: North Carolina and the New Deal. University Press of Mississippi, 1992.

Ahlers, Dirk. “Assessment of the Accuracy of GeoNames Gazetteer Data.” Proceedings of the G.I.R. Workshop, 2013, 74–81. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.722.8740.

Allred, Jeff. American Modernism and Depression Documentary. Oxford University Press, 2010.

Applegarth, Risa. Rhetoric in American Anthropology: Gender, Genre, and Science. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2014.

Arnold, Taylor. “A Tidy Data Model for Natural Language Processing Using cleanNLP.” The R Journal 9, no. 2 (2017): 248–26.

Arnold, Taylor, Emeline Blevins Alexander, Courtney Rivard, Lauren Tilton, and Laura Wexler. “FWP Life History Project in the American South: Machine-Readable Text and Metadata (Version 1.0).” Zenodo, May 29, 2020, 10.5281/zenodo.3865765.

Arnold, Taylor, Michael Kane, and Bryan Lewis. A Computational Approach to Statistical Learning. Chapman & Hall/C.R.C. Texts in Statistical Science, 2019.

Arnold, Taylor, and Lauren Tilton, “New Data? The Role of Statistics in DH.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities 2019, edited by Matthew Gold and Lauren Klein. University of Minnesota Press, 2019.

Austin, David M. “The Institutional Development of Social Work Education: The First 100 Years—and Beyond.” Journal of Social Work Education 33, no. 3 (1997): 599–612. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23043092.

Ayers, Edward L. The Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction. Oxford University Press, 2007.

Ballif, Michelle. Theorizing Histories of Rhetoric. Southern Illinois University Press, 2013.

Banks, Ann, Leonard Rapport, and Federal Writers’ Project, eds. First-Person America. 1st ed. Knopf, distributed by Random House, 1980.

Barnouw, Erik. Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film. Oxford University Press, 1993.

Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. Macmillan, 1981.

Battle-Baptiste Whitney, and Britt Rusert, eds., W.E.B Du Bois’s Data Portraits: Visualizing Black America. Princeton Architectural Press, 2018.

Beecher, Ruth Ann. “The Strange Disappearance of Sterling A. Brown: Literature, Social Science and the Representation of Black Americans, 1930–1945.” PhD diss., Birkbeck, University of London, 2015.

Berry, Jason. “Up from the Soul.” My New Orleans (blog), April 1, 2014. https://www.myneworleans.com/up-from-the-soul/.

Bertin, Jacques. Sémiologie Graphique. Les diagrammes, les réseaux, les cartes. Gauthier-Villars, 1967.

Bies, Ann, Justin Mott, Colin Warner, and Seth Kulick. “English Web Treebank LDC2012T13.” Linguistic Data Consortium, August 16, 2012. 10.35111/m5b6-4m82.

Biles, Roger. The South and the New Deal. University Press of Kentucky, 2006.

Blackhawk, Ned. Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West. Harvard University Press, 2009.

Blakey, George. Hard Times and the New Deal in Kentucky, 1929–1939. University Press of Kentucky, 1986.

Blei, David. “Topic Modeling and Digital Humanities.” Journal of Digital Humanities 2, no. 1 (2012).

Blumer, Herbert. An Appraisal of Thomas and Znaniecki’s The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Social Science Research Council, 1939.

Bodenhamer, David J., John Corrigan, and Trevor M. Harris. Deep Maps and Spatial Narratives. Indiana University Press, 2015.

Bold, Christine. The WPA Guides: Mapping America. University Press of Mississippi, 1999.

Botkin, Benjamin A. “Living Lore on the New York City Writers’ Project.” New York Folklore 2, no. 1 (1946): 252.

Bremer, Nadieh, and Shirley Wu. Data Sketches: A Journey of Imagination, Exploration, and Beautiful Data Visualizations. CRC Press, 2021.

Brewer, Jeutonne P. The Federal Writers’ Project: A Bibliography. Scarecrow Press, 1994.

Brown, James. Up before Daylight: Life Histories from the Alabama Writers’ Project, 1938–1939. University of Alabama Press, 1997.

Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. University of California Press, 1969.

Butler, Judith. Giving an Account of Oneself. Fordham University Press, 2005.

Caldwell, Erskine, Margaret Bourke-White, and Alan Trachtenberg. You Have Seen Their Faces. University of Georgia Press, 1995.

Carmody, Todd. “Sterling Brown and the Dialect of New Deal Optimism.” Callaloo 33, no. 3 (2010): 820–40.

Carson, Saul. “Notes toward an Examination of the Radio Documentary.” Hollywood Quarterly 4, no. 1 (1949): 69–74.

Cebul, Brent, Lily Geismer, and Mason B. Williams, eds. Shaped by the State: Toward a New Political History of the Twentieth Century. University of Chicago Press, 2019.

Cecelski, David S., and Timothy B. Tyson. Democracy Betrayed: The Wilmington Race Riot of 1898 and Its Legacy. University of North Carolina Press Books, 2000.

Cleveland, William. Visualizing Data. Hobart Press, 1993.

Clopper, Cynthia G., and Ellen Dossey. “Phonetic Convergence and Divergence in the American Midwest.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 145, no. 3 (2019): 1930–31.

Coe, Richard M. “‘An Arousing and Fulfillment of Desires’: The Rhetoric of Genre in the Process Era—and Beyond.” In Genre and the New Rhetoric, edited by Aviva Freedman and Peter Medway, 181–90. Taylor & Francis, 1994.

Cohen, Lizabeth. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. Vintage Books, 2004.

Cohen, Lizabeth. Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939. Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Coles, Robert. Doing Documentary Work. New York Public Library, 1998.

Cooper, Marilyn M. “The Ecology of Writing.” College English 48, no. 4 (1986): 364–75.

Couch, William Terry, ed. These Are Our Lives. University of North Carolina Press, 1939.

Cox, Jordana, and Lauren Tilton. “The Digital Public Humanities: Giving New Arguments and New Ways to Argue.” Review of Communication 19, no. 2: 127–46, DOI: 10.1080/15358593.2019.1598569.

Da, Nan Z. “The Computational Case against Computational Literary Studies.” Critical Inquiry 45, no. 3 (2019): 601–39.

Daniel, Pete, et al. Official Images: New Deal Photography. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987.

Davis, Ryan. “Chapel Hill in the Depression.” Daily Tar Heel, March 16, 2009. https://www.dailytarheel.com/article/2009/03/chapel-hill-in-the-depressionbr.

Dean, Pamela. Women on the Hill: A History of Women at UNC. Library of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1987.

Denning, Michael. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. Verso, 1998.

D’Ignazio, Catherine, and Lauren Klein. “What Gets Counted Counts.” Data Feminism, March 16, 2020. https://data-feminism.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/h1w0nbqp/release/3.

Dimock, Wai-Chee. Through Other Continents: American Literature across Deep Time. Princeton University Press, 2006.

Dollard, John. Criteria for a Life History. Yale University Press, 1939.

Dollard, John. Criteria for the Life History. Peter Smith, 1949.

Donath, William, and Alan Hoffman. “Algorithms for Partitioning of Graphs and Computer Logic Based on Eigenvectors of Connections Matrices.” I.B.M. Technical Disclosure Bulletin, 1972.

Dubois, Sylvie, and Barbara M. Horvath. “Sounding Cajun: The Rhetorical Use of Dialect in Speech and Writing.” American Speech 77, no. 3 (2002): 264–87.

Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Open Road Integrated Media, Inc., 1994.

Duncan, Christopher M. Fugitive Theory: Political Theory, the Southern Agrarians, and America. Lexington Books, 2000.

DuVal, Kathleen. The Native Ground: Indians and Colonists in the Heart of the Continent. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.

Earhart, Amy E., and Toniesha L. Taylor. “Pedagogies of Race: Digital Humanities in the Age of Ferguson.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities 2016, edited by Matthew K. Gold and Lauren F. Klein, 251–64. University of Minnesota Press, 2016.

Edbauer, Jenny. “Unframing Models of Public Distribution: From Rhetorical Situation to Rhetorical Ecologies.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 35, no. 4 (2005): 5–24.

Edwards, Richard, Jacob K. Friefeld, and Rebecca S. Wingo. Homesteading the Plains: Toward a New History. University of Nebraska Press, 2017.

Enoch, Jessica. Domestic Occupations: Spatial Rhetorics and Women’s Work. Southern Illinois University Press, 2019.

Evans, Walker, and James Agee. Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001.

Farris, David E. “Narrative Form and Oral History: Some Problems and Possibilities.” International Journal of Oral History 1, no. 3 (1980): 159–80.

Finnegan, Cara. Picturing Poverty: Print Culture and FSA Photographs, Smithsonian, 2003.

Finnegan, Cara A. “What Is This a Picture Of?: Some Thoughts on Images and Archives.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 9, no. 1 (2006): 116–23.

Fraser, Steve, and Gary Gerstle, eds. The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980. Princeton University Press, 1989.

French, Scot A. “What Is Social Memory?” Southern Cultures 2, no. 1 (1995): 9–18.

Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge & The Discourse on Language. Reprint. Vintage, 1982.

Fox, Daniel M. “The Achievement of the Federal Writers’ Project.” American Quarterly 13, no. 1 (1961): 3–19.

Gantt, Patricia. “‘Wanting to Know about My Life’: Oral Histories from the Federal Writers’ Project.” Text and Performance Quarterly 20, no. 3 (2000): 307–11.

Gardner, Sarah. Reviewing the South. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Gelsthorpe, Loraine. “The Jack-Roller: Telling a Story?” Theoretical Criminology 11, no. 4 (November 2007): 515–42. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1362480607081839.

Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920. University of North Carolina Press, 1996.

Givler, Peter. “University Press Publishing in the United States.” Association of University Presses, accessed September 23, 2019. https://aupresses.org/about-aaup/about-university-presses/history-of-university-presses.

Gold, David, and Jessica Enoch. Women at Work: Rhetorics of Gender and Labor. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019.

Gold, David, and Catherine L. Hobbs. Educating the New Southern Woman: Speech, Writing, and Race at the Public Women’s Colleges, 1884–1945. Southern Illinois University Press, 2013.

Goldstone, Andrew, Susana Galán, C. Laura Lovin, Andrew Mazzaschi, and Lindsey Whitmore. “An Interactive Topic Model of Signs.” Github, https://github.com/signs40th/topic-model.

Goodey, Jo. “Biographical Lessons for Criminology.” Theoretical Criminology 4, no. 4 (2000): 473–98.

Graban, Tarez Samra. “Ripple Effects: Toward a Topos of Deployment for Feminist Historiography in Rhetoric and Composition.” In Networking Humanities: From Within and Without the University, edited by Jeff Rice and Brian McNely. Parlor Press, 2018.

Gray, James. “Getting Started with Quantum G.I.S.” Linux Journal, March 26, 2008, http://www.linuxiournal.com/content/getting-started-quantum-gis.

Griswold, Wendy. American Guides: The Federal Writers’ Project and the Casting of American Culture. University of Chicago Press, 2016.

Gross, Andrew S. “The American Guide Series: Patriotism as Brand-Name Identification.” Arizona Quarterly: A Journal of American Literature, Culture, and Theory 62, no. 1 (2006): 85–111.

Hale, Grace Elizabeth. Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940. Vintage, 2010.

Hallenbeck, Sarah, and Michelle Smith. “Mapping Topoi in the Rhetorical Gendering of Work.” Peitho 17, no. 2 (2015): 200.

Harris, Bernice. Southern Savory. University of North Carolina Press, 1964.

Hartman, Saidiya V. Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America. Oxford University Press, 1997.

Hayes, Jack Irby. South Carolina and the New Deal. University of South Carolina Press, 2001.

Hecht, Tobias, After Life: An Ethnographic Novel. Duke University Press, 2006.

Heinemann, Ronald L. Depression and New Deal in Virginia: The Enduring Dominion. University of Virginia Press, 1983.

Hill, Lynda M. “Ex-Slave Narratives: The W.P.A. Federal Writers’ Project Reappraised.” Oral History 26, no. 1 (1998): 64–72.

Hillyer, Reiko. Designing Dixie: Tourism, Memory, and Urban Space in the New South. University of Virginia Press, 2015. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qhb4m.

Hirsch, Jerrold. Portrait of America: A Cultural History of the Federal Writers’ Project. University of North Carolina Press, 2003.

Hobson, Fred. Tell about the South: The Southern Rage to Explain. Louisiana State University Press, 1983.

Holladay, Bob. “The Gods That Failed: Agrarianism, Regionalism, and the Nashville-Chapel Hill Highway.” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 64, no. 4 (2005): 284–307.

Honnibal, Matthew, Ines Montani, Sofie Van Landeghem, and Adriane Boyd. “spaCy: Industrial-strength Natural Language Processing in Python.” Zenodo, 2020. 10.5281/zenodo.1212303.

Hornik, K., and B. Grün. “Topic Models: An R Package for Fitting Topic Models.” Journal of Statistical Software 40, no. 13 (2011): 1–30.

Jackson, Rachel C. “Locating Oklahoma: Critical Regionalism and Transrhetorical Analysis in the Composition Classroom.” College Composition and Communication 66, no. 2 (2014): 301–26.

Jacobson, Matthew Frye. Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race. Harvard University Press, 1998.

Jocher, Katharine. “The Case Method in Social Research.” Social Forces (1928): 203–11.

Jockers, Matthew. Macroanalysis. University of Illinois, 2013.

Johnson, Guy B., and Guion Griffis Johnson. Research in Service to Society: The First Fifty Years of the Institute for Research in Social Science at the University of North Carolina. University of North Carolina Press Books, 2018.

Johnson, Jessica Marie. “Markup Bodies Black [Life] Studies and Slavery [Death] Studies at the Digital Crossroads.” Social Text 36, no. 4 (2018): 57–79.

Joshi, Aditya, Vinita Sharma, and Pushpak Bhattacharyya. “Harnessing Context Incongruity for Sarcasm Detection.” In Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 2: Short Papers), 2015, 757–62.

Kahana, Jonathan. Intelligence Work: The Politics of American Documentary. Columbia University Press, 2008.

Katznelson, Ira. Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time. Liveright, 2014.

Keith, William M., and Christian O. Lundberg. The Essential Guide to Rhetoric. 1st ed. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008.

Kimerling, J. A., S. W. Overton, and D. White. “Statistical Comparison of Map Projection Distortions within Irregular Areas.” Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 22, no. 3 (1995): 205–21.

Lacey, Michel J., and Mary O. Furner. The State and Social Investigation in Britain and the United States. Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Leoncini, Alessio, et al. “Semantic Models for Style-Based Text Clustering.” 2011 IEEE Fifth International Conference on Semantic Computing. IEEE, 2011.

Lichtenstein, Alex. Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South. Verso, 1996.

Logan, Rayford W. Review of The Tragedy of Lynching by Arthur Raper. Journal of Negro History 18, no. 4 (1933): 484–86. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/2714309.

Losh, Elizabeth, and Jacqueline Wernimont. Bodies of Information: Intersectional Feminism and the Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press, 2019.

Lundberg, George A. “Case Work and the Statistical Method.” Social Forces 5 (1926): 61.

Lundberg, George Andrew. Social Research: A Study in Methods of Gathering Data. Longmans, Green, and Co., 1942.

Mahoney, Jennifer, et al. “Data Fail: Teaching Data Literacy with African Diaspora Digital Humanities.” Journal of Interactive Technology & Pedagogy, December 10, 2020. https://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/data-fail-teaching-data-literacy-with-african-diaspora-digital-humanities/.

Malone, Dumas. Edwin A. Alderman. Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1940.

Mangione, Jerre. The Dream and the Deal: The Federal Writers’ Project, 1935–1943. Syracuse University Press, 1996.

Manovich, Lev. Cultural Analytics. MIT Press, 2021.

Martin-Perdue, Nancy, and Charles Purdue. Talk about Trouble: A New Deal Portrait of Virginians in the Great Depression. University of North Carolina Press, 1996.

Matthews, Scott L. Capturing the South: Imagining America’s Most Documented Region. University of North Carolina Press Books, 2018.

McElvaine, Robert S. The Great Depression: America 1929–1941. Reprint. Times Books, 1993.

McGerr, Michael E. A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920. Oxford University Press, 2005.

McPherson, Tara. “Introduction: Media Studies and the Digital Humanities.” Cinema Journal 48, no. 2 (2009): 119–23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20484452.

Megraw, Richard B. “The Uneasiest State: Art, Culture, and Society in New Deal Louisiana, 1933–1943.(Volumes I and II).” LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses, 1990, 5077. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses/5077.

Minh-Ha, Trinh T. “The Totalizing Quest of Meaning.” Theorizing Documentary 1 (1993): 90–107.

Moody-Turner, Shirley. Black Folklore and the Politics of Racial Representation. University Press of Mississippi, 2013.

Mora, Gilles, and Beverly W. Brannan. FSA: The American Vision. Harry N. Abrams, 2006.

Morris, Aldon. The Scholar Denied: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Birth of Modern Sociology. University of California Press, 2017.

Morris, Charles E. “The Archival Turn in Rhetorical Studies; Or, the Archive’s Rhetorical (Re) Turn.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 9, no. 1 (2006): 113–15.

Morris, Charles E., III, and K. J. Rawson. “Queer Archives/Archival Queers.” In Theorizing Histories of Rhetoric, edited by Michelle Ballif, 74–89. Southern Illinois University Press, 2013.

Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Harvard University Press, 1992.

Mullen, Lincoln, Stephen Robertson, et al. “Digital History and Argumentation.” White Paper. 2017. Available online at: https://rrchnm.org/argument-white-paper/.

Muncy, Robyn. Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935. Oxford University Press, 1994.

Mutnick, Deborah. “Toward a Twenty-First-Century Federal Writers’ Project.” College English 77, no. 2 (2014): 124–45.

National Emergency Council. “Report on Economic Conditions of the South.” Washington, DC, July 1938. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/reportoneconomic00nati.

Németh, L., V. Trón, P. Halácsy, A. Kornai, A. Rung, and I. Szakadát. “Leveraging the Open-Source ispell Codebase for Minority Language Analysis.” In Proceedings of SALTMIL, 2004, 56–59.

Nichols, Bill. Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary. Indiana Press University, 1992.

Noble, Safiya Umoja. “Toward a Critical Black Digital Humanities.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities 2019, edited by Matthew K. Gold and Lauren F. Klein, 25–35. University of Minnesota Press, 2019.

O’Brien, Jean M. Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians out of Existence in New England. University of Minnesota Press, 2010.

O’Connor, Alice. Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century US History. Vol. 59. Princeton University Press, 2009.

Odum, Howard W. “Promise and Prospect of the South: ‘A Test of American Regionalism.’” Proceedings of the Annual Session (Southern Political Science Association), no. 8 (1935): 8–18.

Odum, Howard Washington, and Katharine Jocher. An Introduction to Social Research. Henry Holt and Co., 1929.

Penkower, Monty Noam. The Federal Writers’ Project: A Study in Government Patronage of the Arts. University of Illinois Press, 1977.

Pesses, Michael W. “Road Less Traveled: Race and American Automobility.” Mobilities 12, no. 5 (2017): 677–91. DOI: 10.1080/17450101.2016.1240319.

Posner, Miriam. “Humanities Data: A Necessary Contradiction—Miriam Posner’s Blog.” Accessed October 16, 2019. https://miriamposner.com/blog/humanities-data-a-necessary-contradiction/.

Pressner, Todd, David Shepard, and Yoh Kawano. Hypercities: Thick Mapping in the Digital Humanities. Harvard University Press, 2014.

Preston, Dennis R. “The Li’l Abner Syndrome: Written Representations of Speech.” American Speech 60, no. 4 (1985): 328–36.

Rabinowitz, Paula. They Must Be Represented: The Politics of Documentary. Verso, 1994.

Raper, Arthur F. The Tragedy of Lynching. University of North Carolina Press, 1933.

Rapport, Leonard. “How Valid Are the Federal Writers’ Project Life Stories: An Iconoclast among the True Believers.” The Oral History Review 7, no. 1 (1979): 6–17.

Rawson, Katie, and Trevor Muñoz. “Against Cleaning.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities 2019, edited by Lauren Klein and Matt Gold. University of Minnesota Press, 2019.

Rawson, K. J. Archiving Transgender: Affects, Logic, and the Power of Queer History. Syracuse University, 2010. http://gradworks.umi.com.libproxy.lib.unc.edu/34/29/3429041.html.

Rawson, K. J. “The Rhetorical Power of Archival Description: Classifying Images of Gender Transgression.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 48, no. 4 (2017): 1–25.

Redding, Joan. “The Dillard Project: The Black Unit of the Louisiana Writers’ Project.” Louisiana History 32, no. 1 (1991): 47–62.

Renov, Michael, ed. Theorizing Documentary. Routledge, 1993.

Retman, Sonnet H. Real Folks: Race and Genre in the Great Depression. Duke University Press, 2011.

Rhody, Lisa. “Topic Model Data for Topic Modeling and Figurative Language.” Journal of Digital Humanities 2, no. 1 (2012).

Rittenhouse, Jennifer. Discovering the South: One Man’s Travels through a Changing America in the 1930s. University of North Carolina Press, 2017.

Rivard, Courtney, Taylor Arnold, and Lauren Tilton. “Building Pedagogy into Project Development: Making Data Construction Visible in Digital Projects.” Digital Humanities Quarterly 013, no. 2 (August 1, 2019).

Rodgers, Lawrence R., and Jerrold Hirsch. America’s Folklorist: BA Botkin and American Culture. University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.

Ross, Dorothy. The Origins of American Social Science. Vol. 19. Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Rowell, Charles H., and Sterling Allen Brown. “‘Let Me Be Wid Ole Jazzbo’: An Interview with Sterling A. Brown.” Callaloo 21, no. 4 (1998): 789–809.

Royster, Jacqueline, Gesa Kirsch, and Patricia Bizzell. Feminist Rhetorical Practices. Southern Illinois University Press, 2012.

Rutkowski, Sara. Literary Legacies of the Federal Writers’ Project: Voices of the Depression in the American Postwar Era. Springer, 2017.

Ryan, Kathleen, Nancy Sean Myers, and Rebecca Paige A. Jones, eds. Rethinking Ethos: A Feminist Ecological Approach to Rhetoric. Southern Illinois University Press, 2016.

Sanders, Lynn Moss. Howard W. Odum’s Folklore Odyssey: Transformation to Tolerance through African American Folk Studies. University of Georgia Press, 2003.

Sanders, Wiley B. “Recent Contributions in the Field of Juvenile Delinquency, Child Welfare, and Family Case Work.” Social Forces 6, no. 4 (1928): 648–53.

Sayers, Jentery, ed. The Routledge Companion to Media Studies and Digital Humanities. Routledge, 2018.

Schulman, Bruce J. From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South, 1938–1980. Duke University Press, 1994.

Schulten, Susan. “How to See Colorado: The Federal Writers’ Project, American Regionalism, and the ‘Old New Western History.’” Western Historical Quarterly 36, no. 1 (2005): 49–70.

Sharpe, Christina. In the Wake: On Blackness and Being. Duke University Press, 2016.

Shaw, Clifford R., and E. W. Burgess. The Jack-Roller: A Delinquent Boy’s Own Story. Martino Fine Books, 2013.

Shepley, Nathan. “Rhetorical-Ecological Links in Composition History.” Enculturation: A Journal of Rhetoric, Writing, and Culture, February 28, 2013, http://enculturation.net/rhetorical-ecological-links.

Shiflett, Orvin Lee. William Terry Couch and the Politics of Academic Publishing: An Editor’s Career as Lightning Rod for Controversy. McFarland, 2015.

Shoemaker, Linda M. “Early Conflicts in Social Work Education.” Social Science Review 72, no. 2 (1998).

Singal, Daniel Joseph. The War Within: From Victorian to Modernist Thought in the South, 1919–1945. University of North Carolina Press Books, 1982.

Silva, Noenoe K. Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism. Duke University Press, 2004.

Smith, Douglas. The New Deal in the Urban South. Louisiana State University Press, 1988.

Smith, Fred C. Trouble in Goshen: Plain Folk, Roosevelt, Jesus, and Marx in the Great Depression South. University Press of Mississippi, 2014.

Smith, Jason Scott. Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Smith, Mark C. Social Science in the Crucible: The American Debate over Objectivity and Purpose, 1918–1941. Duke University Press, 1994.

Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America. Reprint ed. Oxford University Press, 1987.

Snyder, R. Pare Lorentz and the Documentary Film. University of Oklahoma Press, 1968.

Soapes, Thomas F. “The Federal Writers’ Project Slave Interviews: Useful Data or Misleading Source.” The Oral History Review 5 (1977): 33–38.

Solberg, Janine. “Taking Shorthand for Literacy: Historicizing the Literate Activity of U.S. Women in the Early Twentieth-Century Office.” Literacy in Composition Studies 2, no. 1 (March 15, 2014): 1–28. https://licsjournal.org/index.php/LiCS/article/view/787.

Sontag, Susan. On Photography. Vol. 48. Macmillan, 2001.

Stange, Maren. Symbols of Ideal Life: Social Documentary Photography in America, 1890–1950. Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Stanley, Liz. “On Auto/Biography in Sociology.” Sociology 27, no. 1 (1993): 41–52.

Stewart, Catherine A. Long Past Slavery: Representing Race in the Federal Writers’ Project. University of North Carolina Press, 2016.

Stewart, Kathleen. A Space on the Side of the Road. Princeton University Press, 1996.

Stott, William. Documentary Expression and Thirties America. University of Chicago Press, 1973.

Tausig, Robert. I Swear I Saw This: Drawings in Fieldwork Notebooks, Namely My Own. University of Chicago Press, 2011.

Terrill, Tom E., and Jerrold Hirsch. “Replies to Leonard Rapport’s ‘How Valid Are the Federal Writers’ Project Life Stories: An Iconoclast among the True Believers.’” The Oral History Review 8, no. 1 (1980): 81–89.

Terrill, Tom E., and Jerrold Hirsch, eds. Such as Us: Southern Voices of the Thirties. University of North Carolina Press, 1978.

Thomas, Jerry Bruce. An Appalachian New Deal: West Virginia in the Great Depression. University Press of Kentucky, 1998.

Tidwell, John Edgar. “Recasting Negro Life History: Sterling A. Brown and the Federal Writer’s Project.” The Langston Hughes Review 13, no. 2 (1995): 77–82. www.jstor.org/stable/26434434.

Tukey, John. Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley, 1977.

Twelve Southerners. I’ll Take My Stand: The South and the Agrarian Tradition. Louisiana State University Press, 1930.

Underwood, Ted. Distant Horizons: Digital Evidence and Literary Change. University of Chicago Press, 2019.

Underwood, Ted. “A Genealogy of Distant Reading.” Digital Humanities Quarterly 11, no. 2 (2017).

Vance, Rupert. Human Factors in Cotton Culture: A Study in the Social Geography of the American South. University of North Carolina Press, 1929. https://archive.org/details/humanfactorsinco00vancrich.

VanHaitsma, Pamela. “Between Archival Absence and Information Abundance: Reconstructing Sallie Holley’s Abolitionist Rhetoric through Digital Surrogates and Metadata.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 106, no. 1 (2020): 25–47.

Van Woodward, C. Origins of the New South: 1877–1915. Louisiana State University Press, 1951.

Walpole, Jane Raymond. “Eye Dialect in Fictional Dialogue.” College Composition and Communication 25, no. 2 (1974): 191–96.

Walser, Richard. Bernice Kelly Harris: Storyteller of Eastern Carolina. University of North Carolina Library, 1955. https://archive.org/details/bernicekellyharr20wals.

Warmerdam, F. “The Geospatial Data Abstraction Library.” In Open-Source Approaches in Spatial Data Handling, edited by G. Brent Hall and Michael G. Leahy, 87–104. Springer, 2008.

Wernimont, Jacqueline. “Whence Feminism? Assessing Feminist Interventions in Digital Literary Archives.” D.H.Q.: Digital Humanities Quarterly 7, no. 1 (2013).

Wexler, Laura. Tender Violence: Domestic Visions in an Age of U.S. Imperialism. University of North Carolina Press Books, 2000.

White, Richard. “What Is Spatial History?” Spatial History Lab, Working Paper Online. 2010. https://web.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/media/images/publication/what%20is%20spatial%20history%20pub%20020110.pdf.

Wickham, Hadley. “Tidy Data.” Journal of Statistical Software 59, no. 10 (2014).

Wilkinson, Leland. The Grammar of Graphics. Springer, 1999.

Winston, Brian. Claiming the Real II: Documentary: Grierson and Beyond. BFI/Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Womack, Autumn. “‘The Brown Bag of Miscellany’: Zora Neale Hurston and the Practice of Overexposure.” Black Camera 7, no. 1 (Fall 2015): 115–33.

Wright, Earl. “W.E.B. Du Bois, Howard W. Odum and the Sociological Ghetto.” Sociological Spectrum 34, no. 5 (2014): 453–68.